As in other fields of specialised expertise in which LSP and specialised domain background are quintessential, the communication requirements of a PIL (patient information leaflet) are crucial. In this sense, it is possible to apply skopos theory (Vermeer, 2000, pp. 235-236) to this medical genre, with specific reference to the objective of the ST (source text) which needs to be fulfilled in the TT (target text). Vermeer claims that “every translation can and must be assigned a skopos” (2000, p. 184) and that “a good translation brief is indispensable for a good translation” (2000, p. 230). Furthermore, he propositions that “every translation is based on a commission” (2000, p. 235).
Along similar lines, Nord (1997, p. 53) affirms that the translation brief defines the situational slot contemplated for the TT. Resultantly, any translation task should observe a brief identifying the criteria according to which the TT is meant to fulfil its functions (Nord, 1997, p. 47). In other words, “the skopos of a translation is therefore the goal or purpose, defined by the commission and if necessary adjusted by the translator” (Vermeer, 2000, p. 236). As a consequence, only by bearing in mind both translation objective and brief is it possible to ascertain how to meet TA (target audience) expectations.
In the case of PILs, there may be several skopoi underlying the translation brief and the aims of the TT may differ from those of the ST, due to contradistinctive TT genre conventions. In more practical terms, the translator should appraise the communicative purpose of the original document in order to determine the function of the ST and whether this may map onto the TT or require modifications for the intended receivers. Thus, the development of and the adherence to a translation brief is key, in order to enhance con/textual understanding and glean whether the ST communicative purpose may be retained or needs to be re-established in translation.
As exposed above, Nord argues that the brief and the communicative purpose define the translation task. Moreover, a text analysis of both the ST and the potential TT intended for transmission is essential for defining a functional hierarchy of translation issues. To this end, the intended function of the TT as predisposed by the prospective translation initiator is the driving force behind the translation process (Nord, 2005, p. 10). Besides, “the function of the target text (TT) is not arrived at automatically from the analysis of the source text (ST), but it must be pragmatically defined by the purpose of the TT” (Nord, 2005, p. 77). In other words, the function of the TT is determined by the communicative situation, fulfilled only upon TT reception (Nord, 2005, p. 18-19).
According to Nord’s functional looping model (2005, p. 36-37), the parameters guiding the translation procedure are based on a loop-like chain of seventeen simple WH-questions (2005, p. 41) working their way downwards from the more situational features at the extra-textual level to the linguistic features proper at the intra-textual level (2005, p. 160), as represented below.
EXTRA-TEXTUAL LEVEL
1. who transmits? (sender)
2. to whom? (receiver)
3. what for? (purpose)
4. by which medium? (channel)
5. where? (space)
6. when? (time)
7. why? (reason)
8. which function? (function)
INTRA-TEXTUAL LEVEL
9. what is it about? (topic)
10. what? (information)
11. what not? (presuppositions)
12. in what order? (macrostructure)
13. using which non-verbal elements? (pictograms, tables, etc.)
14. in which words? (lexicon)
15. in what kind of sentences? (syntax)
16. in which tone? (emphasis)
17. to what effect? (implications for the receiver)
Nord’s question-based scheme applied to an English PIL via the apposite creation of ST and TT profiles is emblematic of a functional approach to translation, since a text-focused analysis is functional to establishing the translation brief, communicative aim and skopos on the basis of recipient-oriented expectations.
Within this context, House (2009, pp 71-72) introduces the notion of the “communicative functional approach” to translation, viewed as the result of communication taking place between two parties with the translator acting as mediator. This communicative outlook lends a new angle to functional translation, which becomes an act of intercultural exchange taking place between cultures as opposed to a mere exercise in cross-linguistic transposition. In this regard Kussmaul (2008, p. 33) suggests that “(...) the function of a word in its specific context determines to what degree the cultural meaning should be made explicit”.
Moreover, a functional translation relies on the set of values and expectations of the target receivership, which in turn is motivated by culture-specific awareness and situational discernment. This concept governs the con/textual functions to the extent of actually condoning con/textual manipulation (Kussmaul, 1995, p. 149). In regard to PILs and functional translation, Cacchiani (2006, p. 28) goes a step further by arguing that
(...) functionally adequate translations are coherent
with the target language audience and conventions
and meet the communicative purpose for which they
are needed. In the case of PILs, it can be argued that
the well being of the patient justifies adjustments to
stylistic and terminological conventions of the target
language.
In order to attain such functional adequacy PILs require an equifunctional translation, since they accomplish the same function across both genres in their respective languages, as well as an instrumental translation in the sense of Nord (1997, p. 49), viewed as a process resulting in an independent end-product fulfilling a target-culture situation endowed with a new communicative action, regardless of the original ST communicative purpose.
For this reason, if we choose to abide by functionalism and select Nord’s model as a reference framework, we need to recognise that function and content are indissolubly connected and be aware that translation is essentially identified by the way it will function in the TC (target culture) and its ensuing impact and influence on the TA.
Nord also introduces another cornerstone into the functionalist model, namely the concept of ‘loyalty’, whereby the basis is established for a trusting relationship between all parties to the translation communicative interaction (2007, p. 3). In particular, the loyalty principle may lead translators to be intermediaries between cultures, uncover their objectives and justify their choices as an act of professional ethics. This loyalty is viewed as the translator’s dual responsibility towards the TA expectations and the communicative intentions of the ST initiator alike (2007, p. 3).
It becomes clear to what extent an intense focus on TT goals and on the conventions of the TC enables translations to be shifted up a gear from acceptable to functionally appropriate (Schäffner, 1998, p. 1). Axiomatically, prospective medical translators should ultimately endeavour to meet receiver-specific requirements on the basis of a clearly defined brief and a loyal modus operandi, whereby the TT should reflect TA expectations and the different degrees of knowledge of the receivership.
This article has striven to glean whether there is an existing rationale for the production of a functional translation based on a pragmatic text analysis. The advantages of adopting a functional translation approach have been pursued by drawing on a number of relevant academic contributions relating to the translation brief and to textual analysis as postulated by Nord (2005). It has been suggested that functional adequacy may be achieved in translation by bringing into focus the goals of the TT which capture the cultural assumptions of the receiving audience, and subsequently, by adjusting the translation accordingly. The PIL translation context under scrutiny proves not only that a rationale for developing a functional translation does indeed exist, but that it represents an optimal and responsible approach for the production of an appropriate text enabling the patient/reader to access all the information available in package inserts advancing the careful and effectual use of medication.
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Italy